1. Collapse of state system and kingdoms for example Kush collapse.
2. Collapse of trade and their economic systems e.g. the trans-Saharan trade and long distance trade.
3. Collapse of Arab influence I east Africa and east Africa.
4. Impact of Portuguese conquest leading to destruction of towns.
5. Introduction of new types of trade e.g. legitimate trade which replaced slave trade.
6. European colonization brought in a new social political and economic order.
7. Exhaustion of mineral resources e.g. gold as in case of sofala and Kilwa as well as Meroe. Some minerals lost value.
8. Changes in transport routes as new roads by-passed some towns thus diverting trade to other centres e.g. Timbuktu.
9. As a result of stiff competition, some towns dwindled as others expanded.

Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon.
Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.

Parthenon in Athens

There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.

The concept of democracy first developed in Athens.
At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.
Athenians were divided into four classes.

• First class –the richest that were the most heavily taxed.
• Second class- provided the cavalry for the army.
• Third class- provided the soldiers for the infantry.
• The fourth class- the poorest and who paid no taxes.

Factors that led to growth of Athens

• Trade and commerce. The Athenians practiced trade to obtain foods in exchange for wine, wool and olive oil.
• Security. Athens was located in an easily defensible place. The town was surrounded by water, valleys and highlands making it difficult for an external enemy to attack.
• Religious activities. The area was a worship centre.
• Accessibility and communication network. The port of Athens was located about six kilometres from the city thus making Athens a transport centre.
• Availability of water.

Functions of Athens.

• It was a cultural centre. The Greeks loved to watch play. In Athens, there was the great theatre of Epidaurus.
• An educational centre. In Athens, every person was taught how to read and write.
• Athens was a sports centre. There were Gymnasiums where boys were taught games which were developed into what came to be known as Olympics.
• Religious centre. The Parthenon temple was a great manifestation of this function. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.

The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames.
By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.

Factors influencing growth of London

• Trade-money obtained from trading was used to build the city.
• Industrialization-industry such as textile, ship building, metal works, etc
• Improved transport –London is well served by a network of railway and roads.
• Shipping activities-there are many harbours in London enabling expanded loading and unloading activities.
• Population growth.
• London was the seat of government for a very long time.

Functions of London

• It was a transport and communication centre.
• It is a political and administrative capital with offices for the Prime Minister and cabinet. The Monarchical offices are also located here.
• It is a commercial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
• An industrial centre. London was an early centre of the textile industry.
• It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the oxford university and the University of London.
• London is a historical centre. The city has theatres for the performance of cultural activities and museums which display artefacts of Historical importance.

Problems of London

• Overcrowding.
• Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population.
• Poor housing and homelessness. This has led to development of slums.
• Transportation is another problem.
• Air pollution continues to be a major challenge.
• Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
• Poverty. This was a greater problem in London in the initial stages.
• Caravan trade unpopular as it was slow, cumbersome and risky.

Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway.

Nairobi, Kenya

Factors Influencing the Growth of Nairobi

1. Excellent location in an area almost midway between Mombasa and Lake Victoria.
2. There was adequate supply of water.
3. The land was suitable for construction of workshops as it was flat.
4. The climate was suitable for Europeans. Cool temperatures at an altitude of 1700m.
5. It was surrounded by a fertile countryside producing adequate foods.
6. Transfer of the seat of the colonial government in 1907.

Functions of Nairobi

1. It was a transport and communication centre. The city is inter-connected with roads which served various parts of the country.
2. It is an administrative capital with offices for the head of state, cabinet, parliament and department of defence.
3. It is a regional headquarter of various international bodies like UN, ILO etc.
4. It is a commercial and financial centre.
5. An industrial centre.
6. It is an educational centre- housing many learning institutions.
7. It is a tourist centre. The town boasts of various tourist attractions such as the Nairobi National Park, National Museums etc.

Problems Facing Nairobi

1. Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
2. Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population.
3. Poor housing.
4. Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
5. Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
6. Poor town planning has led to poor drainage.
7. Pollution continues to be a major challenge in Nairobi.
8. Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion of water reservoirs.
9. The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.

Solutions to Problems Facing Nairobi

1. New housing projects are being developed.
2. The education and other social services are being provided through a cost-sharing scheme between the government and the town dwellers.
3. The government is addressing the transport/congestion problem through the upgrading of the Thika Superhighway to an eight lane highway; the Nairobi Syokimau Railway service was commissioned by President Kibaki, 1 November 2012 to de-congest jogoo road. Etc.
4. The government is encouraging the expansion of the informal sector as an alternative source of employment.
5. The government is rehabilitating street families by taking them to schools to acquire relevant skills to make them useful to the nation.
6. New water projects have been put in place. For example, the third Nairobi water Project from River Chania.
7. The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS.

The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand.

Johannesburg, South Africa

Factors which contributed to the growth of Johannesburg.

1. Existence of minerals/discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand which resulted in a rush of people to the area.
2. Availability of energy i.e. coal which was an important source of energy to the mines, industries and homes.
3. Excellent location in the veldt/plain making construction work easy.
4. Its proximity to Vaal River which supplied plenty of water to industries and domestic use.
5. Area around Johannesburg is fertile.
6. The organization of the city council which has ensured that financial control and revenue collection is effectively and the city able to manage its growth problems.
7. Government policy of supporting industrial development.

Functions of Johannesburg

1. It was a transport and communication centre.
2. An industrial centre.
3. It is a commercial and financial centre.
4. It is an educational centre.

Problems facing Johannesburg.

1. The problem of racial segregation. The black Africans who work around Johannesburg were often treated almost as slaves though they were the majority in the country.
2. Poor housing. Most of the workers who work in and around Johannesburg live in shanties , mainly because of underpayment.
3. Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population.
4. A large gap between the affluent class, especially the Europeans and the poor people who majorly are African.
5. Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
6. The city has the highest crime rate in the world.
7. Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
8. Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion of water reservoirs.
9. The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.

Solutions to the Problems

1. The apartheid regime was ended in 1994 thus ending the problem of racial segregation.
2. The new government of South Africa is trying to come up with better housing estates.
3. Crime has been contained by creating more job opportunities.
4. The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS.

• The practice of agriculture forced people to adopt a sedentary lifestyle.
• Early agriculture led to specialization.
• From the agrarian revolution, there was adequate food for town dwellers.
• The revolution in Europe led to a landless society who moved to urban centres seeking employment. This promoted urban growth.
• Increased agricultural production ensured steady supply of raw materials to the new industries.
• Agricultural expansion meant the big farmers had to borrow loans hence the expansion of banking facilities in towns leading to further growth.
• Agricultural produce entering and leaving countries had to be handled in ports hence towns near coasts grew.

• The establishment of many factories drew many people to towns in search of employment the mining industry attracted many people to work in the mines. The mining camps soon grew up into towns.
• Industrial revolution stimulated innovations in transport and communication ensuring faster movement of people to further expansion of trading towns.
• The growth of industry has led to expansion of port towns to handle increased manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo.
• The use of machines replaced human labour and caused layoffs. Those who lost their jabs sometimes became a security risk hence an increase in crime.
• The many inefficient factories that came up after the revolution have caused massive air and water pollution.
• Rural urban migration has exerted pressure on the limited resources and services the towns can offer.

• Rural–urban migration by Africans looking for better opportunities led to increased crime levels and insecurity for the Europeans.
• Air pollution which also affected them.
• Creation of employment for the Europeans in the developing industries.
• Creation of markets for agricultural produce due to increased urban population.
• Europeans were deprived of cheap African labour as most of them moved to urban areas.