Industry is defined as the skill of making other products from raw materials. It involves extraction and processing into finished products of raw materials.

Energy is the ability to do work. The following are the early sources of energy that can be identified.

1. Wood
Wood developed as a source of energy after the discovery of fire. It was used as follows;

• Making fire which provides heat to warm people during cold seasons lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting(bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation.
• Charcoal made from wood fuel provided heat that was used for steaming water to provide steam power for steam engines during the industrial revolution.

2. Wind

• Wind was used to drive sailing ships during the trade between East African Coast and the Far East.
• Windmills were used in China to grind grain and process foods.
• They were also used to pump water from polders in Netherlands.
• Windmills are also used to generate electricity.
• Windmills are mainly used in areas with fewer trees like in Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera.
  

3. Water

• Water has been harnessed to produce HEP.
• Water was used to turn wooden propellers (water wheels) which in turn turned grindstones to grind grains into flour.

• Metallic tools were more durable. They could not break easily.
• Cutting edges of metals could be sharpened.
• Malleable Metals could be heated and reworked into different usable designs when need arose.
• Metals are not prone to waste. Broken pieces can be smelted and reworked into useful items.

- The following are examples of metals that were used in Africa.

1. Gold
Uses of Gold

• It was used to make ornaments and decorations. In Egypt, it was used to make jewellery like rings, bangles and bracelets.
• It was used to make utensils, such as plates, vases and drinking vessels.
• It was used to make swords and flint knife handles among the rich in Egypt.
• It was used to make coins in Egypt.
• It was used as a trade item in East, central and west Africa.
• It was used to make weapons such as sword and knife blades.
• Gold was also a measure of wealth in Egypt.

2. Copper
- The metal could further be hardened by mixing it with other metals to form alloys during smelting.
Uses of copper.

• Making utensils and containers such as pots and pans.
• The Egyptians used copper to make axes, tools, Chisels, Pins and fish hooks.
• It was used to make ornamental bangles, rings, helmets, needles, wire chains and statues.
• It was used as a medium of exchange in the form of copper bars.
• It was used to make daggers (weapons).
• It was used as a trade commodity. Those with copper exchanged it with other goods that they did not have.
• It was used to make alloys like Bronze and Brass.

3. Bronze
Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin which makes it harder than copper.
Uses of Bronze.

• Making stronger weapons such as shields, spears, arrowheads, swords and daggers.
• Making sculptures and decorations.
• Making knives, containers, pans and vases.
• It was a store of wealth.
• It was used to make tools, shields and chariots.

Disadvantages of Bronze

• The tools lost their sharpness and became blunt quickly since the metal was relatively soft.
• Bronze was not cheap. The mixture of copper and yin had to be acquired through trade thus making bronze expensive.
• It was difficult to get an appropriate proportion of each of the two metals.

4. Iron
Two theories that explain the origin and spread of iron working in Africa are;

1. It was first introduced in North Africa from the Middle East by the Phoenicians and the Assyrians, and then spread to west, East Central and South Africa.
2. The art of iron working probably developed independently in Africa as evidenced by the Archaeological evidence in Buhaya(the oldest iron age site that existed between 5th and 6th C AD ), North –West of Tanzania. The Buhaya iron is associated with the pottery style known as Urewe-ware.

Ways in which the iron culture spread in Africa

1. Through wars of conquest e.g. Egypt versus Assyrians where the Assyrians forced the Egyptians to learn to use iron from Meroe to make strong weapons.
2. Trade e.g. the Mesopotamians traded with Africans.
3. Intermarriages e.g. Arabs and Africans intermarried.
4. Through learning and acquiring the technology from neighbors.
5. Increased demand for iron tools for agriculture, weapons and iron products increased trade in iron.
6. Migrations.
7. Travelers and messengers who gave out and received the gifts of iron.

Uses of Iron

• It was used as medium of exchange. Iron bars were used as currency.
• To make agricultural tools such as hoes and pangas this increased food production.
• Weapons such as spears and arrows were made of iron, which strengthened some communities while others who lacked the same were easily defeated.
• Iron was used as a trade item where those who did not have it acquired it through barter trade.
• It was used for storing wealth. Smithers used iron bars as a measure of value.

Effects of Iron Working

• It promoted empire building. Many kingdoms and empires relied on strong iron, weaponss to fight expansionist wars e.g. Egypt, Benin and Mwene Mutapa empires.
• It led to migrations especially of the Bantus who war able to protect themselves during the journeys using iron weapons.
• It promoted agriculture since large tracts of land could now be used to produce more food using stronger tools.
• Adequate food resulted in population increase and later migration to areas with sparse population.
• It resulted in specialization and division of labour.
• It stimulated construction and building works using stronger metals like iron.
• Metal technology also had an impact on religion in that metals began to be used when performing religious rites and in royal palaces e.g. the golden stool among the Asante.
• Trading and industrial towns developed within and around the major mining centres.
• Trade was promoted in that sometimes iron was used as currency and others became important items of long distance and regional trade.

Uses of Coal

• To heat water to high temperatures so as to produce steam.
• To provide lighting.
• To drive steam engines in factories. Some generators depended on coal heat to produce steam.
• To drive locomotives. This promoted transport.
• It was a raw material in the manufacturing of dye and pharmaceutical products.

Disadvantages of Coal

• It is bulky and transporting it is difficult.
• It produced too much smoke when used in locomotives.
• Coal was expensive to mine and to transport to the required destination.
• Coal mining was risky to miners who often lost their lives when mines collapsed and buried them.

Uses of oil (petroleum)

• To power vehicles, aeroplanes and ships.
• To generate electricity used in lighting and cooking.
• To run engines in industries.
• Tar (Bitumen), a by-product of petroleum is used to tarmac roads.
• Greasing of metals in industries was also done by petroleum by-products such as grease.
• Certain petroleum chemicals are used in making of drugs, fertilizers, synthetic fibre and plastics.

Disadvantages of oil

• For countries importing oil, it is expensive to transport.
• Prospecting for oil is quite expensive.
• Oil may also affect the environment, since extracting large quantities of petroleum may cause land to sink.

Uses of Steam

• It was used to drive heavy machinery in factories and to turn turbines that generated power for industrial use.
• It was used for pumping water out of coal mines.
• It was used in steam –powered locomotives and ships.
• The massive temple doors in Egypt were only opened using steam.

Uses of Electricity

• Lighting.
• Heating and cooking.
• Powering machines in factories.
• Communication. Electric signals are used in communication gadgets.
• Powering transport vehicles such as electric trains and electric cars.

Disadvantages of Electricity

• It can be dangerous if not properly installed or used.
• The generation and distribution of electricity is very expensive thus making its use limited to fewer people in developing countries.

Uses of Solar energy

• Drying agricultural products.
• Distilling of salty water to get salt crystals.
• Heating water in homes and industry.
• Heating and lighting buildings.
• Cooking using solar cookers.
• Irrigating using solar water pumps.
• Powering satellites in space.

Advantages of solar energy

• It is clean and is available in places where sunlight is readily available.
• It is natural and therefore free, non-pollutant and inexhaustible source of energy.

Uses of iron

• Production of machines for textile industry. Water pipes and ploughs were made of iron.
• Production of steam engines.
• Building of trains, railway lines ships, wheels, bridges and coach frames.

Uses of Steel

• The construction of rail lines, bridges, cars and ships.
• The manufacturing of machinery especially in the agricultural and industrial sector.
• Reinforcement of concrete in buildings and roofing houses.
• Making of containers and utensils.

The transformation was facilitated by the following factors;

1. Availability of coal and iron ore which served as a basis for heavy industries.
2. Existence of a large population which provided steady internal market for the manufactured goods/domestic local markets.
3. Existence of cottage industries which acted as a base for industrial take-off in Britain.
4. Due to the enclosure act, many peasants became available to offer unskilled labour especially following their displacement from the rural areas.
5. Well developed transport and communication network.
6. Existence of good banking and insurance systems which gave financial help and security to the industries.
7. Britain had a strong navy that guarded her trade routes thus protecting her merchants from foreign competition.
8. Availability of wealth/capital that stimulated industrial revolution.
9. Availability of industrial raw materials in her vast colonies.

Reasons why other European countries delayed in the industrialization process include the following;

1. The political upheavals in France, Germany and Italy were responsible for the delay in the take- off of industrialization.
2. The existence of a feudal economy in which the peasant farmers could not afford to buy industrial goods nor raise capital to invest in industry.
3. The system of farming implied that inadequate raw materials came from the farms thus making it difficult for industrial development.
4. Their system of transport was not developed.
5. Unlike Britain, these countries did not have an enterprising class of people and scientists ready to take up the task of industrial investment and invention.

Factors that led to industrial development in continental Europe were as follows;

1. Political stability and strong leadership that followed the unification of Italy and Germany and end of Napoleonic rule in France created a contusive environment for investments when compared to other European countries.
2. The agrarian revolution that had taken place in continental Europe ensured that the countries had raw materials for their industries.
3. There was adequate capital from the rich traders who willingly invested in industry.
4. Existence of good banking and insurance systems which gave financial help and security to the industries.
5. Existence of a large population which provided both skilled and unskilled labour required by the industries.
6. The European governments supported the industrial ventures that were aimed at enhancing economic development.
7. Existence of a steady internal and external market for the manufactured goods.
8. Well developed transport and communication network.
9. Countries in continental Europe had vast sources of energy such as coal, steam power and electricity which enhanced industrial development.
10. The development of new skills in science and technology facilitated industrial growth.

Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe.

1. Creation of employment opportunities. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories.
2. Improved Standards of living. Living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century.
3. Population increase. Due to improved living conditions and health care.
4. Local and international trade developed. Manufactured goods were sold locally while others were exported to America.
5. European economies became diversified as a result of industrial growth. This led to specialization.
6. Development and use of machinery. in agriculture led to increased production.
7. Improvement in Transportation and technology.
8. The industrial revolution promoted.development of science and technology.
9. It led to Political corruption.- the amount of money generated by the Industrial Revolution created a class of super rich who could buy any politician or process.
10. Environmental damage. The air was horribly polluted from factories, as was the soil and rivers.

The scientific revolution refers to the history of science in the early modern period, where sudden development in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry transformed views of society and nature.

Causes of Scientific Revolution

1. Discovery of the New World. Exploration/conquest leading to discovery of new plant/animal life.
2. Invention of the Printing Press. Numerous books and newsletters were in circulation keeping people informed of science.
3. Renaissance / birth of knowledge. During this period, Human interest in the classical world increased.
4. The need to solve their daily life problems like shortages, disease etc. necessity is the mother of all inventions.
5. Financial support for governments and individuals. Governments and individuals financed scientific research.
6. Religion failed to answer all questions. This sometimes betrayed man’s belief in supernatural power thus emphasizing research.

Early inventions were witnessed in the field of medicine, astronomy, agriculture, medicine and mathematics as follows;

1. The Egyptians discovered geometry which they used on farms. They discovered dead body preservation method (mummification). Build pyramids for their pharaohs using knowledge in mathematics.
2. Greeks like Pythagoras contributed to mathematics, especially the right angled triangle as early as 200BC, Euclid did some work in geometry. Archimedes discovered how the lever works. Ptolemy is remembered for geographical work especially production of the Atlas.
3. The Chinese made cloth from silk and developed acupuncture skills. They invented paper making in 70 AD. They made gunpowder and the calendar.
4. The Indians invented the decimal system in mathematics.
5. The Muslim Arabs developed the art of architecture as evidenced by the construction of unique mosques.

Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture

1. Food production has been increased thanks to the use of farm machinery, fertilizers, pest and control methods and scientific breeding.
2. Scientific inventions have stimulated scientific research in the field of agriculture.
3. Farming of perishable foods has been made possible due to invention of preservation methods for foods.
4. Increased food production has led to increase in population.
5. Biotechnology has contributed to diversification of agriculture leading to greater crop and animal production.
6. Farming has been revolutionized from small-scale subsistence farming to large –scale economic activity due to mechanization on farms.

Negative Impacts of Scientific Inventions on Agriculture.

1. The consumption of chemically –treated and stored food has raised concern for food related disease such as cancer and heart diseases.
2. Use of pesticides and fertilizers sometimes poses the challenges of cost.
3. Consistence use of fertilizers impoverishes the soil fertility.
4. Traditional crops are being threatened by biotechnology and development of hybrids.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Industry.

1. Large quantities of goods can be produced due to scientific inventions.
2. Efficient sources of energy necessary for industrial production have been developed. New forms of energy such as nuclear, solar and electricity have been invented.
3. Improvements in transport and communication have stimulated industrial development.
4. The large scale manufacture of goods has led to growth of trade.
5. Space exploration has been enhanced through science.
6. Science has revolutionized military technology. Dangerous weapons have been manufactured.
7. Industries have created job opportunities.

Negative Impact of scientific Inventions on Industry.

1. Scientific inventions in industry have led to industrial wastes and pollutants that contribute to environmental pollution. Smoke pollutes the air, machines cause noise pollution etc.
2. Human life has suffered unnecessarily due to development of war weapons and accidents on roads and aeroplanes.
3. Many people have been rendered unemployed due to development of machines.

Impact of Scientific Inventions on Medicine Field.

1. Discovery of various medicines to treat both animals and human diseases has boosted both curative and preventive measures in promoting health.
2. Improved nutrition has reduced the number of disease that kills man. Population has there increased as a result of reduced death rate.
3. Proper diagnosis of disease is now possible with the use of x-rays and other modern scientific methods. With accurate diagnosis, proper treatment can be given.
4. The manufacture of various drugs has been facilitated by scientific discoveries. Many companies produce drugs that prevent and cure diseases.

Factors Undermining Scientific Revolution in Third World Countries.

1. Lack of enough funds for scientific research.
2. High level of ignorance and illiteracy.
3. The educational systems do not allow for development of inquisitive mind and development of interest in science. The system is not science oriented.
4. The brain–drain; the few specialized scientists have migrated to areas with greener pastures like Europe and America.
5. There is too much dependence on developed countries for nearly everything manufactured or scientifically produced.
6. Lack of adequate support from the government. This is clear in the type of budgetary allocations to scientific research.

Measures that can be undertaken to promote scientific research in third world countries.

1. Putting emphasis on the teaching of sciences in schools.
2. Making available financial resources for scientific research.
3. Emphasizing on competitions and congresses in schools and colleges.
4. The government of Kenya has set up research institutions and centres of science and technology.
5. Scientists have been trained locally and abroad on new knowledge in science and technology.
6. International cooperation conferences in science, which bring scientists together, are organized and attended by Kenyan scientists.